ZIMBABWE’S mineral wealth is a fluck of nature. Its earth is packed with such metal ores as gold, lithium, diamond, granite and coal along the vast seams in this part of the southern African country.
Throughout the colonial period, colonisers have exploited and extracted these mineral resources.
Four decades after Zimbabwe attained its independence the resources remain vast.
However, residents of Hwange have a sad story to tell as the effects of coal mining activities by some Chinese-owned mining companies that have gradually disrupted the environment, causing ecological damage and human wildlife conflict.
Irreversible ecological degradation risk
Marlvin Daka, team leader for Vostale Creatives Trust, a community-based organisation that promotes environment conservation in Hwange, says there are more than 14 private-owned Chinese mining companies operating in Hwange district involved in coke, coal and brick making production.
In the mining town of Hwange, Matabeleland North province, community members say they are suffering from a deteriorating environment, air and water pollution as well as rising temperatures due to the coal mining activities taking place in their communities.
Hwange district, once a thick forest and home to the country’s largest wildlife resercve, the majestic Hwange National Park, has gradually turned into a mining town due to the mining concessions dished out by the Government of Zimbabwe to companies such as Zhong Jiang coal mining, Zambezi Coal and Gasification, Tutu Investments, contracted by the government under the Hwange Colliery Company to improve electricity generation capacity in the country.
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Daily thick grey-dark mist of dusty clouds hover the atmosphere in the district of Hwange as trucks ferry coal from mining shafts to the Hwange power station as the Government of Zimbabwe through its power generating companies seek to improve electricity generation capacity for the country and for exports.
What are the gains?
Hwange communities blame the Chinese-owned companies for the devastating impact of coal mining on the ecosystem and biodiversity. They say the coal mining activities are “contributing to climate change, environment degradation and water as well as air pollution”.
Lazarus Tshuma, a 38-year-old livestock farmer in the Dinde community, is one of the many villagers affected by mining activities in the area.
Dinde community is in ward 14 under Hwange Rural District Council. The community and many other communities in the district such as Deka and Lusumbami have been subjected to environment destruction, water and air pollution, with villagers demanding relocation due to Chinese mining operations.
“Dingson Colliery, Zhong Jian Investments, Tutu Chilota Collieries are some of the Chinese companies contracted by Hwange Colliery Company Limited involved in coal mining projects in the rural district of Hwange. Their mining activities are very destructive in nature as they affect biodiversity and livelihoods of community members,” Tshuma says.
Zim-China mining relations
China has been one of Zimbabwe’s main investors in the mining sector. Since the late former President Robert Mugabe’s administration, China has been a major political ally of the Zimbabwe government under the “Look-East” policy aimed at boosting the country’s economy following economic sanctions imposed by Western countries as a result of the country’s tainted governance and human rights record.
The government of President Emmerson Mnangagwa, when it came into power in 2017, embarked on a policy drive to attract foreign direct investment to promote economic recovery and growth aimed towards becoming a middle-income economy by 2030 as embodied in the mantra” “Zimbabwe is open for business.”
Under the mantra, mining is a key anchor to the achievement of this vision, and this is reflected in key policy documents like the US$12 billion mining economy by 2023 Strategy. China naturally emerged as a key investor with significant investments in critical sectors such as mining.
China funding
Daka says Chinese-owned firms are some of the companies contracted by the government of Zimbabwe to carry out their operations on State land doing coal mining on behalf of the government.
“Chinese nationals with special grants issued by the President of Zimbabwe, Emmerson Mnangagwa, for exploration have toured villages, drilling without engaging locals or conducting environment impact assessment,” Daka says.
Villagers are now subjected to forced relocations and displacements to pave way for mining explorations within their communities. Main sources of drinking water for human and livestock, mainly the Nyantuwe and Deka rivers have been affected by pollution due to the mining exploits, added Daka.
The Mines and Minerals Act states that cpecial grants give the holder the right to carry out mining operations within an area which has been reserved. A special grant is issued by the president upon recommendations by the Minister of Mines.
Chinese-owned companies with reported close links to the president, politicians and the government have been granted mining rights through the special grants, while subcontracting smaller companies in other locations. The government in 2017, extended the tenure of the special grants for the Chinese-owned Zambezi Gas Zimbabwe (Pvt) limited for a period of 25 years to 2042.
Civil society groups’ response
The Zimbabwe Environmental Lawyers Association (Zela), an environmental law organisation seeking to promote environmental, economic and cultural rights of communities in southern Africa, states that The Mines and Minerals Act of Zimbabwe gives too much power to the Mines minister to offer tax exemptions to mining companies without public or parliamentary scrutiny for appropriateness.
Zela states that the existing old and colonial piece of legislature does not deal with environmental protection, transparent issuance of mining rights and public disclosure of mining revenues.
They held further that: “State participation in mining through state owned companies has led government to abdicate its duty to protect the people. Mining causes loss of land, displacement of communities without compensation, pollution of rivers and loss of livelihood sources.”
Farai Muguwu, the executive of the Centre for Natural Resource Governance, a research and advocacy civil society organisation that promotes governance of natural resources and equity in marginalised communities, says: “Coal mining is being initiated by Chinese companies contracted by the government through Hwange Colliery Company to boost electricity generation in the country. Such mining companies, such as South Mining Company are in operation on State land and communities come closer to residential areas. Their operations although approved by the government, are destructive in nature affecting communities and livelihoods of people and livestock.”
Residents of Hwange town and its vicinity are complaining of coal dust pollution caused by blasting and trucks that carry coal to the coking plants and power stations, and water pollution along the Deka River.
Emelia Mukombwe, like many other villagers whose homes are 200 meteres from the mining activities, claims she is exposed to coal dust in her home and is now worried she may develop respiratory infections or lung diseases. According to Emelia, when the Chinese-owned companies are doing their unscheduled blasting, they affect people including schoolchildren attending class.
“Coal dust can take more than two hours to settle and this interrupts learners in class. Coal blasting also exposes black shell, which then pollutes the air and sometimes causing underground fires exposing community members to injuries. In terms of safety health and environment, Hwange community has been affected,” Mukombwe says.
Environment and climate policies
The Greater Whange Residents Trust, an association that advocates and lobbies for good municipal service and local governance has recorded an increase in the number of children burnt by coal fires. According to the association, coalmines endanger the lives of Hwange residents and cattle due to fatal pollution.
According to the Zimbabwe National Development Strategy 1, January 2021 — December 2025, Zimbabwe is party to international conventions and protocols to pursue national interest and sustainable development on climate change, environment and wildlife conservation as well as human rights. But the country seems to have gradually suspended such commitments in favour of robust investments in the mining sector and the quest to meet a US$12 billion mining economy by 2023.
Fidelis Chima, chairperson for Greater Whange Residents Trust, says the government has been petitioned on several occasions by civil society, environmental and climate change activists raising concern on issuing mining and exploration rights to Chinese mining companies without carrying out Environmental Impact Assessments.
“There has been a rising concern on government’s response in protecting and preserving the environment. The government has been petitioned against issuing mining concessions to Chinese owned companies, but it has remained silent despite the threats of coal-seam fires and environment destruction.
“Lack of government’s response on the community concerns shows that the government is focused on its US$12-billion-dollar mining economy by 2023 target at the expense of ensuring human rights, sustainable development and environment protection amid the effects of climate change,” says Fidelis Chima of Greater Whange Residents Trust.
Regardless of being a signatory to Climate Change conventions such as the Paris Agreement aimed at reducing global warming, Zimbabwe relies on fossil fuels for electricity generation and has been intensifying its investments in the industry amid worldwide resolutions to phase it out.
Coal, a metallic black sedimentary rock that is part of fossil fuel family, releases carbon dioxide a greenhouse gas, which contributes to global warming and climate change.
The Environment Management Agency (EMA), a statutory entity responsible for ensuring sustainable utilisation of natural resources and protection of the environment, seems to be toothless.
EMA was established through the EMA Act, Chapter 20:27, which also provides for the establishment of the National Environmental Council, the Environmental Management Agency and Environment Management Board. It provides for the formulation of environmental quality standards and environmental plans, for environmental impact assessments audit and monitoring of projects and for other matters in relation to management and conservation of the environment.
The Zimbabwe Environmental Lawyers Association, however, believes EMA has been failing to apply and balance the concepts of business and human rights as enunciated in the UN Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights and has not been compliant with and monitoring of Environmental Impact Assessments to address potential impacts and risks on communities by mining companies and environmental authorities has been very weak.
EMA Matabeleland province authorities admitted to receiving reports that Chinese mining companies where discharging their mining water into rivers polluting water sources and were fined for contravening Environmental Protection Orders in terms of section 37 of the on disposal of effluent in a manner as to cause environmental pollution.
EMA’s Matabeleland provincial manager, Chipo Mpofu-Zuze says the agency is working with mining companies to ensure that measures are put in place to effectively reduce pollution, environment and ecological damage. “The Environmental Management Agency has been engaging with the Zimbabwe Power Company in Hwange to find ways of minimising dust pollution in the mining zone. EMA has also been working with mining companies to ensure that air pollution and environmental damage is mitigated. EMA has an oversight role that seeks to ensure environmental protection as well as coming up with mitigation strategies on air pollution from the coal mining,” says Mpofu-Zuze.
Towards a 12-billion-dollar mining economy: What are the gains?
After taking power in 2018, President Mnangagwa’s administration put in place economic development strategies under the National Development Strategy 1 which projected a US$12-billion-dollar mining economy by the year 2023 that will make the country self-reliant in power generation and a net exporter of power regionally.
While the communities lie in desolation, the Government of Zimbabwe is focused on expanding coal production from three million tonnes to 15 million tonnes annually, and the new power projects mainly in Hwange are being financed by China.
Zimbabwe, like other African countries, is in debt, despite its objectives to achieve long-term United Nations’ Sustainable Development mandates governments to foster inclusive, long-term economic development that creates jobs by 2030.
Debt crisis
The African Forum and Network on Debt and Development (Afrodad) 2023 reports that many African countries are lagging on economic and infrastructure development due to financial constraints despite an endowment of vast and rich mineral resources.
Resource rich poor countries are utilising their mineral resources to solve their challenges, alleviate poverty and initiate development strategies by leveraging on resource endowments through resource-backed loans and collateralisation of mineral resources.
Resource finance loans are popular financing models by China. According to Afrodad, an economic policy think-tank that is anchored on influencing policy change on debt management in Africa, between 2003 and 2011 out of a US$132 billion provided by Chinese banks to African governments, an estimated 57% was from resource finances. Desperate African governments enter into mining concessions with Chinese Banks and private companies leasing their resources as collateral,
“Governments give away too much in their desperation for infrastructure development. Chinese banks often involve a condition or lead to procurement being carried out by Chinese companies even though this could be due to the preferential support the banks will be bringing which eliminates competition. Most of the loans lack transparency, accountability and competition,” reads the Afrodad report.
Is Zimbabwe mortgaging the country through debt?
While Zimbabwe projects a US$12-billion-dollar mining economy, the road map is to the detriment of the local people in the coal rich mining district of Hwange. Without proper management, ordinary citizens bear the brunt to the mining concessions and deals that the government entered with Chinese mining companies.
“In a weak governance system such as Zimbabwe resource-backed loans become burdensome for borrowers. Chinese investment is bringing conflict rather than development. In place of development, communities have nothing to show. Livelihoods have deteriorated, biodiversity and the ecology has been disrupted. Investors are extracting resources leaving communities without sustainable development,” Daka said.
